The Evolution of Useful Things
Authors: Henry Petroski, Henry Petroski
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Overview
In The Evolution of Useful Things, I explore the fascinating history of how everyday objects, from forks and paperclips to zippers and soda cans, have evolved to their present forms. My central argument, which I frame as “form follows failure,” proposes that design is driven not by some abstract notion of perfect functionality, but by the continuous identification and resolution of shortcomings in existing artifacts. We don’t create the perfect tool and then stop; rather, we iterate, improve, and adapt in response to failures, both large and small. This book challenges the conventional “form follows function” mantra by showing that function alone doesn’t dictate a single optimal form. I explore the iterative design process by looking at examples from diverse cultures and historical periods, showing how the same basic human needs have given rise to a surprising diversity of solutions. I delve into how seemingly minor frustrations, like a wobbly knife or a hard-to-open can, spark innovation and lead to significant changes in design. The role of the inventor, in my view, is not to create from nothing but to act as a critic, identifying flaws and imagining better ways. I also analyze the social and cultural forces that shape our relationship with technology. Fashion, tradition, and economic considerations all play a role in determining which designs succeed and which are relegated to the dustbin of history. I also challenge the prevailing idea that newer is always better. The book concludes by asserting that design is a never-ending process. As long as humans interact with the made world, there will be room for improvement, and the cycle of form following failure will continue to shape the evolution of useful things. The Evolution of Useful Things is targeted at anyone interested in design, engineering, invention, and the history of technology. It’s accessible to a general audience and relevant to current discussions about sustainability, product design, and the role of technology in our lives. The book contributes to our understanding of how humans interact with technology and how this interaction shapes both the form of our artifacts and the fabric of our society.
Book Outline
1. How the Fork Got Its Tines
I explore the evolution of the common fork, demonstrating how its form emerged not from a single “eureka” moment, but from a series of modifications addressing specific user frustrations. The placement and shape of tines, for instance, were refined to prevent food from rotating while being cut and to facilitate scooping, showcasing how form follows failure.
Key concept: Form follows failure. By focusing on the shortcomings of existing objects, innovators identify areas for improvement and create new, evolved designs.
2. Form Follows Failure
I articulate the central argument of the book – “form follows failure” – suggesting that design evolution isn’t driven by pure functionality but by addressing perceived shortcomings and inefficiencies in existing artifacts. The desire for improvement, often fueled by luxury rather than necessity, is what propels innovation.
Key concept: Form follows failure. It is want, not need, that drives technological evolution as things are never as convenient or efficient as we wish, leading to iterative improvements.
3. Inventors as Critics
Drawing upon insights from notable inventors like Jacob Rabinow and Nathaniel C. Wyeth, I highlight the critical role of identifying flaws and inefficiencies in existing products as the driving force behind invention. Inventors, often acting as technology’s severest critics, see potential where others see satisfaction.
Key concept: Inventors are people who not only curse, but who also start to think of what can be done to eliminate the bother.
4. From Pins to Paper Clips
The humble paperclip’s evolution reveals how form is continuously refined through iterative improvements. I discuss the various designs, from straight pins to complex folded wire fasteners, each addressing specific flaws in prior forms until the near-perfect Gem clip emerged, demonstrating how lesser innovations pave the way for breakthroughs.
Key concept: Nearly always when a new feature appears it has earned its place by defeating an older one.
5. Little Things Can Mean a Lot
By exploring seemingly mundane objects like paper clips and Post-it notes, one gains a deeper understanding of the broader principles of technological evolution. Small things are not just small things, but microcosms of larger systems and offer a less intimidating window into how technology interacts with culture and society.
Key concept: By seeking order in the made world, the seemingly insignificant provides lessons for larger technological processes.
6. Stick Before Zip
I trace the evolution of fastening mechanisms, starting with simple closures like pins and buttons, moving through the complex development of the zipper with its many iterations by Whitcomb Judson and Gideon Sundback, and finally to modern hook-and-loop fasteners. Each innovation was a response to limitations and failures in existing designs, showing how even seemingly minor frustrations drive design forward.
Key concept: So long as there are inconveniences and discomforts in our ordinary way of life, so long will there be inventors striving to improve matters.
7. Tools Make Tools
I explore how tools themselves shape the evolution of other tools. Drawing on examples such as saws and hammers, I demonstrate how craftsmen, through repeated use and intimate familiarity, identify tool shortcomings and devise improvements. This illustrates the often-unspoken dialogue between craftsman and tool that leads to specialized and diversified forms.
Key concept: Our “progress has been largely a matter of inventing new tools and improving the old ones.”
8. Patterns of Proliferation
Using silverware patterns as a case study, I illustrate how artifacts can proliferate to accommodate a growing array of specialized functions and user preferences. The seemingly endless variations of forks, spoons, and serving pieces reflect not merely a capitalist drive for novelty, but a human-centered desire for efficiency, convenience, and social distinction.
Key concept: The variety of made things is every bit as astonishing as that of living things.
9. Domestic Fashion and Industrial Design
I discuss the interplay between domestic fashion and industrial design, showing how social context influences artifact evolution. While the form of utilitarian objects like hammers is primarily driven by functional need, objects like table knives are subject to trends in dining and etiquette, leading to a complex interplay between utility and social meaning.
Key concept: The social context in which an artifact is used can indeed have a considerable influence on the more decorative and nonessential variations in its form.
10. The Power of Precedent
I discuss how design decisions, influenced by precedent and seemingly arbitrary choices, can shape the trajectory of technological development. Case studies such as the Crystal Palace and the Sydney Opera House highlight how design competitions expose the power of precedent, emphasizing that what is novel today can quickly become the expected norm, constraining future innovations.
Key concept: Like performance competitions, design competitions make evident the arbitrariness of form, but our awareness of it is often only short-lived.
11. Closure Before Opening
I trace the development of the seemingly simple can opener and bottle opener to show how the form and function of everyday objects are shaped not only by the need to access the contents within, but by broader considerations like safety, convenience, and environmental impact. The story of the pop-top can highlights the unforeseen consequences of even successful innovations and the endless cycle of improvement.
Key concept: It is the rare artifact that does not require also an infrastructure of auxiliary artifacts to be developed.
12. Big Bucks from Small Change
I explore the complex relationship between cost, quality, and design evolution, using bed frames and railroads as illustrative examples. I show how economic considerations shape design choices and how focusing solely on minimizing costs can lead to suboptimal solutions in the long run, emphasizing the importance of considering overall value and benefit.
Key concept: The nonquantitative word “quality” conveys countless ways in which a more expensive thing might be more profitable and yet a better buy as well.
13. When Good Is Better Than Best
I challenge the notion that “good” is necessarily less than “best” in design, drawing on the example of McDonald’s packaging to demonstrate how design solutions that seemed ideal at one time (clamshells) could later be deemed failures due to unforeseen environmental consequences. What is “good” is often context-dependent and evolves as our understanding of the relationship between design, society, and nature changes.
Key concept: Even if… the best designs deal successfully with the future, that does not mean they are futuristic.
14. Always Room for Improvement
I discuss the iterative nature of design improvement, using telephone systems as an example to show how our perceptions of “good” design shift with experience. Initial frustrations with unfamiliar features give way to appreciation as we master their use, highlighting the interplay between design, user behavior, and technological progress.
Key concept: The adaptability of humans to the imperfections of artifacts is perhaps the final determinant in establishing the ultimate form of so many of the things we use, even if with a cursed affection.
Essential Questions
1. How does ‘form follow failure’ as a design principle, and what implications does it have for understanding technological development?
My central thesis is that ‘form follows failure’. I argue that the evolution of objects is driven by the shortcomings and failures of their predecessors. The book traces the development of various everyday items, showcasing how their forms have been iteratively refined through a process of identifying and addressing flaws. This perspective challenges the traditional notion of ‘form follows function’, suggesting that function alone doesn’t determine a single optimal form, but that the iterative process of addressing failure does. The implications of this thesis extend beyond individual objects to larger technological systems, suggesting a non-teleological view of technological progress where advancements emerge from a continuous cycle of improvement and adaptation rather than a linear progression towards perfection.
2. How do social and cultural factors interact with functional considerations to shape the form of artifacts?
I explore this interplay through various case studies, like the evolution of the fork, which was influenced by both practical needs (spearing food) and social customs (table manners). Similarly, the development of the zipper was not only a response to the functional problem of fastening clothing, but also reflected changing fashion trends and social attitudes. The book shows how artifacts are embedded in a cultural context, with their forms shaped by a complex interplay of utilitarian and social considerations, not merely a capitalist plot.
3. How does the concept of failure as both a functional and perceptual phenomenon drive the evolution of design?
While function provides an initial framework for design, it’s the ongoing identification of failures, whether functional or perceptual, that drives innovation. I illustrate this with examples like the evolution of the paperclip, where each new design addressed a specific flaw in its predecessors. Furthermore, I argue that this focus on failure is not simply a matter of fixing problems but also involves an element of desire - a want for things to be better, more efficient, or more aesthetically pleasing. This inherent dissatisfaction with the status quo is what propels the evolutionary process of design.
4. What role do seemingly “small” or mundane objects play in understanding broader technological processes, and what insights can they offer into the nature of innovation?
While large-scale projects, like the Crystal Palace, demonstrate the influence of precedent, I use the example of humble paper clips to show that even the smallest things can have a complex and interesting evolutionary history. By focusing on everyday objects, we can better grasp the principles of design and innovation, and see how form evolves through a process of problem-solving and adaptation. I also highlight the relationship between tools and the people who use them, demonstrating how craftsmen, through intimate familiarity with their tools, identify shortcomings and devise improvements.
1. How does ‘form follow failure’ as a design principle, and what implications does it have for understanding technological development?
My central thesis is that ‘form follows failure’. I argue that the evolution of objects is driven by the shortcomings and failures of their predecessors. The book traces the development of various everyday items, showcasing how their forms have been iteratively refined through a process of identifying and addressing flaws. This perspective challenges the traditional notion of ‘form follows function’, suggesting that function alone doesn’t determine a single optimal form, but that the iterative process of addressing failure does. The implications of this thesis extend beyond individual objects to larger technological systems, suggesting a non-teleological view of technological progress where advancements emerge from a continuous cycle of improvement and adaptation rather than a linear progression towards perfection.
2. How do social and cultural factors interact with functional considerations to shape the form of artifacts?
I explore this interplay through various case studies, like the evolution of the fork, which was influenced by both practical needs (spearing food) and social customs (table manners). Similarly, the development of the zipper was not only a response to the functional problem of fastening clothing, but also reflected changing fashion trends and social attitudes. The book shows how artifacts are embedded in a cultural context, with their forms shaped by a complex interplay of utilitarian and social considerations, not merely a capitalist plot.
3. How does the concept of failure as both a functional and perceptual phenomenon drive the evolution of design?
While function provides an initial framework for design, it’s the ongoing identification of failures, whether functional or perceptual, that drives innovation. I illustrate this with examples like the evolution of the paperclip, where each new design addressed a specific flaw in its predecessors. Furthermore, I argue that this focus on failure is not simply a matter of fixing problems but also involves an element of desire - a want for things to be better, more efficient, or more aesthetically pleasing. This inherent dissatisfaction with the status quo is what propels the evolutionary process of design.
4. What role do seemingly “small” or mundane objects play in understanding broader technological processes, and what insights can they offer into the nature of innovation?
While large-scale projects, like the Crystal Palace, demonstrate the influence of precedent, I use the example of humble paper clips to show that even the smallest things can have a complex and interesting evolutionary history. By focusing on everyday objects, we can better grasp the principles of design and innovation, and see how form evolves through a process of problem-solving and adaptation. I also highlight the relationship between tools and the people who use them, demonstrating how craftsmen, through intimate familiarity with their tools, identify shortcomings and devise improvements.
Key Takeaways
1. Embrace failure as an opportunity for innovation.
I argue against seeking a single “perfect” solution and instead encourage embracing the iterative process of identifying and addressing shortcomings. Each perceived failure becomes an opportunity for innovation, and the accumulation of these small improvements over time leads to significant advancements. In the context of AI, this means not being afraid to release “imperfect” products, gather user feedback, and continuously refine the design based on real-world interactions and failures. This iterative approach aligns with agile development methodologies and emphasizes continuous learning and improvement.
Practical Application:
An AI product engineer, when designing a new chatbot, shouldn’t strive for a perfect first version. Instead, release a functional prototype early, gather user feedback on its shortcomings, and iterate on the design based on the failures and frustrations users experience. This iterative process, driven by user feedback, will ultimately lead to a more robust and user-friendly product.
2. Consider the socio-cultural context in design.
While functional requirements are essential, design is also deeply influenced by social and cultural values. The book demonstrates, for example, how the design of silverware has been shaped by evolving table manners and dining customs. In AI, this translates to considering the cultural context in which AI systems will be used. AI engineers must be mindful of cultural biases and user expectations when designing interfaces and interactions to ensure that their creations are not only functional but also socially acceptable and culturally appropriate.
Practical Application:
In designing an AI-powered recommendation system, consider not just the algorithm’s accuracy but also the user interface. How easily can users understand and control the recommendations? How do cultural preferences and biases influence their perception of the system? By addressing these questions, AI engineers can create systems that are both effective and culturally relevant.
3. Anticipate potential points of failure.
I emphasize the importance of anticipating potential points of failure in design. I explore how artifacts evolve not only in response to existing problems but also in anticipation of potential future failures. This proactive approach to design is crucial for creating robust and reliable products, especially in complex systems like AI. AI engineers must not just focus on building systems that work in ideal conditions, but also on anticipating and mitigating potential problems that could arise in real-world scenarios.
Practical Application:
When designing a self-driving car, AI engineers must not only ensure the car functions safely and efficiently under normal conditions but also anticipate and mitigate potential failures. What happens if a sensor malfunctions? How will the car respond to unforeseen obstacles or adverse weather? By focusing on these potential points of failure, engineers can create more robust and reliable autonomous systems.
1. Embrace failure as an opportunity for innovation.
I argue against seeking a single “perfect” solution and instead encourage embracing the iterative process of identifying and addressing shortcomings. Each perceived failure becomes an opportunity for innovation, and the accumulation of these small improvements over time leads to significant advancements. In the context of AI, this means not being afraid to release “imperfect” products, gather user feedback, and continuously refine the design based on real-world interactions and failures. This iterative approach aligns with agile development methodologies and emphasizes continuous learning and improvement.
Practical Application:
An AI product engineer, when designing a new chatbot, shouldn’t strive for a perfect first version. Instead, release a functional prototype early, gather user feedback on its shortcomings, and iterate on the design based on the failures and frustrations users experience. This iterative process, driven by user feedback, will ultimately lead to a more robust and user-friendly product.
2. Consider the socio-cultural context in design.
While functional requirements are essential, design is also deeply influenced by social and cultural values. The book demonstrates, for example, how the design of silverware has been shaped by evolving table manners and dining customs. In AI, this translates to considering the cultural context in which AI systems will be used. AI engineers must be mindful of cultural biases and user expectations when designing interfaces and interactions to ensure that their creations are not only functional but also socially acceptable and culturally appropriate.
Practical Application:
In designing an AI-powered recommendation system, consider not just the algorithm’s accuracy but also the user interface. How easily can users understand and control the recommendations? How do cultural preferences and biases influence their perception of the system? By addressing these questions, AI engineers can create systems that are both effective and culturally relevant.
3. Anticipate potential points of failure.
I emphasize the importance of anticipating potential points of failure in design. I explore how artifacts evolve not only in response to existing problems but also in anticipation of potential future failures. This proactive approach to design is crucial for creating robust and reliable products, especially in complex systems like AI. AI engineers must not just focus on building systems that work in ideal conditions, but also on anticipating and mitigating potential problems that could arise in real-world scenarios.
Practical Application:
When designing a self-driving car, AI engineers must not only ensure the car functions safely and efficiently under normal conditions but also anticipate and mitigate potential failures. What happens if a sensor malfunctions? How will the car respond to unforeseen obstacles or adverse weather? By focusing on these potential points of failure, engineers can create more robust and reliable autonomous systems.
Suggested Deep Dive
Chapter: From Pins to Paper Clips
This chapter offers a highly detailed and engaging case study of a simple yet ubiquitous object, the paperclip. It vividly illustrates the “form follows failure” principle through the evolution of various paperclip designs, making the core concept of the book tangible and readily applicable to other design contexts, including AI.
Memorable Quotes
Preface. 11
Given that so much of our perception involves made things, it is reasonable to ask how they got to look the way they do.
Form Follows Failure. 34
Luxury, rather than necessity, is the mother of invention. Every artifact is somewhat wanting in its function, and this is what drives its evolution.
Inventors as Critics. 41
Inventors are people who not only curse, but who also start to think of what can be done to eliminate the bother.
Inventors as Critics. 43
Misfit provides an incentive to change; good fit provides none.
From Pins to Paper Clips. 86
One gets the impression… that it is certainly the Gem [paperclip] that Goldberger has in mind as the “real thing.”
Preface. 11
Given that so much of our perception involves made things, it is reasonable to ask how they got to look the way they do.
Form Follows Failure. 34
Luxury, rather than necessity, is the mother of invention. Every artifact is somewhat wanting in its function, and this is what drives its evolution.
Inventors as Critics. 41
Inventors are people who not only curse, but who also start to think of what can be done to eliminate the bother.
Inventors as Critics. 43
Misfit provides an incentive to change; good fit provides none.
From Pins to Paper Clips. 86
One gets the impression… that it is certainly the Gem [paperclip] that Goldberger has in mind as the “real thing.”
Comparative Analysis
Unlike Donald Norman’s The Design of Everyday Things, which focuses on the usability of objects in the present, The Evolution of Useful Things takes a historical and evolutionary perspective. While Norman emphasizes user-centered design principles for creating intuitive and functional products, I argue that form is often shaped by a series of failures and adaptations over time. Both books, however, acknowledge the importance of user experience in shaping design. Similarly, George Basalla’s The Evolution of Technology uses a broader lens to examine the forces driving technological change, while I focus specifically on the role of failure in shaping the form of individual artifacts. My work can be seen as a more granular, object-focused analysis of some of the concepts Basalla explores on a larger scale. With Christopher Alexander’s Notes on the Synthesis of Form, there’s a strong agreement on the iterative nature of design. Alexander’s concept of “misfit” closely aligns with my notion of “failure” as the driver of design evolution. However, while Alexander focuses on a more theoretical and systematic approach to design, I use historical narratives and real-world examples to illustrate the often messy and unpredictable path of artifact development.
Reflection
While The Evolution of Useful Things primarily focuses on physical artifacts, the core principle of ‘form follows failure’ has broader implications for the design and development of AI systems. The iterative process of identifying shortcomings, proposing solutions, and adapting based on feedback is central to both physical and digital design. Just as the form of a fork evolved over centuries to address user frustrations, the design of AI algorithms and user interfaces should be viewed as an ongoing evolution driven by the need to address failures in achieving desired outcomes, whether it’s a chatbot failing to understand user intent, or a recommendation system producing irrelevant results. The concept of ‘failure’ in AI, however, is more nuanced than in the physical world. While a broken fork is easily recognizable, failures in AI can be more subtle, involving issues like bias, lack of transparency, and unintended consequences. This requires more sophisticated methods for identifying and addressing failures, including robust testing, ethical considerations, and ongoing monitoring of AI systems in real-world deployment. One skeptical angle is the potential oversimplification of technological development as purely a response to failures. While failure is a major driver, it’s not the only one. Social and cultural influences, scientific discoveries, and serendipitous innovations also play a role. Nevertheless, ‘form follows failure’ offers a valuable perspective for understanding the iterative nature of design and emphasizes the importance of embracing failure as a learning opportunity, particularly in the rapidly evolving field of AI.
Flashcards
What is ‘form follows failure’?
The iterative design principle where improvements are driven by the shortcomings and failures of existing objects.
What is the mother of invention, according to Petroski?
Luxury, not necessity, as continuous improvement is spurred by the want for things to be better, not by a fundamental need.
What characterizes an inventor’s mindset?
A mindset of identifying flaws and envisioning improvements, even in seemingly perfect objects.
What is the ‘power of precedent’?
A framework for understanding how even small design decisions have long-lasting impact by shaping user expectations and constraining future innovations.
What is the importance of ‘closure before opening’?
The need for auxiliary tools and infrastructure to use or interact with an artifact, often overlooked during initial design.
What is ‘form follows failure’?
The iterative design principle where improvements are driven by the shortcomings and failures of existing objects.
What is the mother of invention, according to Petroski?
Luxury, not necessity, as continuous improvement is spurred by the want for things to be better, not by a fundamental need.
What characterizes an inventor’s mindset?
A mindset of identifying flaws and envisioning improvements, even in seemingly perfect objects.
What is the ‘power of precedent’?
A framework for understanding how even small design decisions have long-lasting impact by shaping user expectations and constraining future innovations.
What is the importance of ‘closure before opening’?
The need for auxiliary tools and infrastructure to use or interact with an artifact, often overlooked during initial design.