Innovation and Its Enemies: Why People Resist New Technologies
Tags: #technology #innovation #history #society #economics #policy
Authors: Calestous Juma
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Overview
My book, ‘Innovation and Its Enemies: Why People Resist New Technologies’, explores the recurring phenomenon of societal resistance to technological innovation. From coffee and the printing press to margarine, farm mechanization, and genetically modified crops, I demonstrate that opposition to new technologies is a deeply rooted aspect of human history, often driven by fear of loss - economic, social, or cultural - rather than a simple rejection of novelty.
This book is targeted at policymakers, business leaders, and anyone interested in understanding the dynamics of technological change and its impact on society. It is particularly relevant in our current era, which is characterized by both unprecedented technological advancement and growing concerns about globalization, inequality, and the role of institutions in shaping our collective future.
I argue that effectively managing the tensions between innovation and incumbency requires a shift from reactive, fear-based approaches to a more proactive and inclusive approach. This means embracing uncertainty, encouraging public education, and designing institutional mechanisms that foster transparency, accountability, and trust. I stress the importance of understanding the interplay of technological, social, and economic forces, as well as the need to balance the potential benefits of innovation with its potential risks.
By learning from historical examples and dissecting the underlying drivers of resistance, my book seeks to provide readers with the tools and insights needed to navigate the challenges and opportunities of a rapidly changing technological landscape. It aims to help ensure that technological innovation serves as a force for positive social change, fostering inclusive economic development and a more sustainable future.
Book Outline
1. Gales of Creative Destruction
This chapter lays out a framework for understanding the complex relationship between technological innovation and social change. It argues that the real driver of resistance to new technology is not novelty but the fear of loss. This fear can manifest as concern about economic disruption, threats to social stability, or challenges to cultural identity. The chapter underscores the importance of institutions in shaping technological adoption and highlights how new technologies often challenge existing power structures.
Key concept: Resistance to new technologies is often framed in the context of risks to moral values, human health, and environmental safety. But behind these genuine concerns often lie deeper, but unacknowledged, socioeconomic considerations.
2. Brewing Trouble: Coffee
The introduction of coffee as a widely consumed beverage shows how even seemingly simple innovations can trigger profound societal transformations. Coffee disrupted the established social and economic order built around traditional beverages like wine and beer, leading to new cultural practices, social spaces (the coffeehouse), and business models. Early opposition to coffee often invoked religious and health concerns, masking deeper anxieties about social and economic change.
Key concept: Schumpeter’s rejection of the equilibrium outlook of economic life: ‘all change in consumers’ tastes is incidental to, and brought about by, producers’ actions.’
3. Stop the Presses: Printing the Koran
The Ottoman Empire’s delayed adoption of the printing press highlights how existing systems for knowledge transmission and religious authority can influence attitudes toward new technologies. The printing press was seen as a potential threat to the established order, and its adoption was only embraced after significant societal shifts and technical advances that reduced concerns about the sanctity of the written word and the role of calligraphy.
Key concept: The ‘conservative’ Muslim tradition is often cited as a reason for the delayed adoption of the printing press, but this overlooks the fact that the Muslim world readily adopted other Western innovations.
4. Smear Campaigns: Margarine
Margarine’s tumultuous entry into the market showcases how incumbent industries can use legislative processes, false advertising, and public smear campaigns to hinder the adoption of disruptive technologies. Dairy producers, threatened by margarine, successfully mobilized political and social forces to suppress its adoption. This demonstrates how seemingly rational concerns about public health or consumer protection can be used to mask protectionist and anti-competitive motives.
Key concept: Three elements typically affect the likelihood of an innovation succeeding: the intensity of the motivation; the distribution of winners and losers; and the role of authority.
5. Gaining Traction: Farm Mechanization
The mechanization of American agriculture illustrates a different type of technological succession, one where the incumbent source of power (horses) initially sought coexistence with the disruptive technology (tractors). This resulted in public debates and lobbying efforts focused on the relative merits of both, ultimately leading to technological improvements in both horses and tractors. However, the tractor’s universal applicability and the rise of supporting institutions ultimately led to the decline of the horse in agriculture.
Key concept: The debate around farm mechanization focused on ‘coexistence rather than on the exclusion of the new technology.’
6. Charged Arguments: Electricity
The ‘war of the currents’ between Edison’s direct current (DC) and Westinghouse’s alternating current (AC) exemplifies how technological competition can lead to fierce battles, often playing out in the public arena. In this case, Edison, threatened by AC’s advantages, resorted to a campaign of fear-mongering and misinformation about AC’s safety. This tactic, which linked AC to the electric chair, underscores how proponents of incumbent technologies can exploit public anxieties to delay the adoption of potentially disruptive innovations.
Key concept: Edison described his goal as ‘to effect exact imitation of all done by gas, so as to replace lighting by gas by lighting by electricity.’
7. Cool Reception: Mechanical Refrigeration
The adoption of mechanical refrigeration was driven by both the need for safer and more efficient cooling methods, and by growing concerns about the limitations and safety of natural ice. The chapter highlights how technological controversies often focus on surface-level concerns, like the risk of explosions from ammonia, rather than addressing the deeper socioeconomic drivers of change. It also underscores the importance of creating new institutions, like trade associations and the IIR, to promote knowledge sharing and foster technological advancement.
Key concept: The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) stands out as an ‘important institutional innovation that sought to define the challenges of the industry by offering technical solutions while leaving social concerns to national associations and their members.’
8. Facing the Music: Recorded Sound
The 1942 recording ban imposed by the American Federation of Musicians illustrates how the fear of technological unemployment can lead to resistance from organized labor. The ban was a response to the rise of recorded music and its perceived threat to the livelihoods of musicians. While initially disruptive, the ban ultimately led to the diversification of the music industry and the rise of new genres like bebop.
Key concept: Technological unemployment, as the economic historian Joel Mokyr writes, occurs because ‘new knowledge displaces existing skills and threatens rents.’
9. Taking Root: Transgenic Crops
The controversy surrounding genetically modified (GM) crops, particularly those engineered with Bt genes for pest resistance, exemplifies the global tensions between technological innovation and incumbent agricultural systems. The debate highlighted concerns about corporate control of the food system, environmental safety, and the impact on developing countries. It also brought into focus the role of the precautionary principle in shaping international regulations, often amplifying future risks based on perceived hazards rather than on concrete evidence.
Key concept: The precautionary principle, as enshrined in the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, ‘empowers governments to restrict the release of products into the environment if they feel biodiversity might be threatened even if no conclusive evidence exists that they are harmful.’
10. Swimming against the Current: AquAdvantage Salmon
AquaBounty Technologies’ quest to commercialize the AquAdvantage salmon, a genetically modified fish engineered for rapid growth, sheds light on the challenges of navigating complex regulatory processes for novel product species. The debate surrounding the salmon, fueled by concerns about environmental risks, food safety, and economic impacts, highlights the importance of transparent and science-based regulatory systems that consider both the potential risks and benefits of new technologies. This case underscores how public perceptions, often driven by misinformation, can significantly impact regulatory decisions and the adoption of potentially beneficial innovations.
Key concept: Many experts on technological innovation and regulation argued that the review and regulatory decision-making processes around the AquAdvantage salmon had been among the ‘most thorough and transparent to date.’
11. Oiling the Wheels of Novelty
This chapter distills the book’s key lessons for navigating technological controversies and outlines strategies for fostering inclusive innovation. It emphasizes the need for leadership that is informed by scientific and technological advice, promotes public education, and encourages the development of adaptive institutions. It argues that embracing a broader, systemic understanding of innovation, acknowledging the complex interplay of social, economic, and political factors, is essential for effectively managing the inevitable tensions between innovation and incumbency.
Key concept: Policymakers need to embrace a more proactive and anticipatory approach to managing technological change. They should seek to ‘understand the exponential function’ and anticipate the rapid pace of technological advancement and its potential social and economic impacts.
Essential Questions
1. What is the fundamental driver of resistance to technological innovation?
The fear of loss, rather than novelty, is the root cause of resistance to new technologies. This fear can be economic, related to job displacement or market shifts; social, stemming from concerns about the disruption of established norms and social order; or cultural, tied to perceived threats to identity and tradition.
2. How do technological innovation and social institutions interact?
Technological innovation and social institutions are deeply intertwined in a co-evolutionary dance. New technologies challenge existing institutional arrangements, which in turn adapt and reshape themselves in response to these technologies. Understanding this coevolution is critical for managing the tensions that arise from technological change.
3. How can policymakers effectively address public concerns about new technologies?
Policymakers need to recognize that public concerns about new technologies are often rooted in deeper socioeconomic considerations, not just in perceived risks or a lack of understanding. Therefore, effective policy responses must address not only the technical aspects of a new technology but also its broader societal implications and the distribution of its benefits and risks.
4. What is inclusive innovation, and why is it important in the context of technological change?
Inclusive innovation means ensuring that the benefits of technological advancement are shared widely and do not exacerbate existing inequalities or create new forms of exclusion. This requires proactive efforts to build local capabilities, foster public engagement in technology development, and design business models that promote technological inclusion.
5. What kind of leadership is needed to effectively navigate a rapidly changing technological landscape?
Leaders need to be more proactive and anticipatory in their approach to managing technological change, embracing uncertainty, fostering continuous learning, and making decisions based on the best available scientific and technological advice. This will require strengthening advisory institutions, fostering scientific literacy, and promoting a more open and inclusive approach to technological development.
Key Takeaways
1. Technological innovation is a systemic process, not just a technical one.
Technological innovations are not just about creating new products or processes; they also reshape social systems and disrupt existing power structures. Therefore, understanding the social context in which a new technology is introduced is crucial for anticipating resistance and designing strategies for successful adoption.
Practical Application:
In the development of a new AI-powered medical diagnostic tool, the design team should not only focus on the technical accuracy and efficiency of the tool but also consider how it will impact the roles and workflows of doctors and nurses. They should involve healthcare professionals in the design and testing process to ensure that the tool complements and enhances their skills rather than replacing them.
2. Framing matters: Emphasize how technology empowers, not displaces, humans.
New technologies should be framed as enablers of human potential, complementing and enhancing human skills rather than simply replacing jobs. Emphasizing the benefits of new technologies for enhancing creativity, productivity, and well-being can help to reduce fears of job displacement and foster more positive attitudes toward technological change.
Practical Application:
An AI product team could use this principle by focusing on developing AI solutions that enhance human creativity and productivity, rather than simply automating existing tasks. For example, instead of building an AI that replaces human artists, the team could develop an AI that helps artists explore new creative possibilities or streamline their workflow.
3. Ground new technologies in familiar contexts to ease adoption.
When introducing new technologies, it is important to ground them in existing social and cultural contexts to reduce anxiety and foster a sense of familiarity. This can be achieved by designing new technologies to resemble existing ones, emphasizing their continuity with established practices, and highlighting their benefits for enhancing existing ways of life.
Practical Application:
A company developing a new AI-powered personal assistant could use this strategy by grounding aspects of its design in familiar concepts and technologies. For example, the assistant’s voice and personality could be modeled after those of a trusted human assistant, and its interface could incorporate familiar elements from existing digital assistants. This would help to reduce user anxiety and foster a sense of familiarity and trust.
4. Inclusive innovation is essential for addressing global challenges.
To foster wider societal acceptance of new technologies, especially those with potential for global impact, it is crucial to promote inclusive innovation. This means engaging a diverse range of stakeholders, including those in developing countries, in the design and implementation process to ensure that new technologies address a broad range of needs and do not exacerbate existing inequalities.
Practical Application:
An organization promoting the adoption of a new AI technology for environmental monitoring could partner with local communities and environmental groups to develop and implement the technology in a way that addresses their specific concerns and priorities. This could involve co-designing the technology, providing training and education, and ensuring that the benefits of the technology are shared equitably.
Suggested Deep Dive
Chapter: Charged Arguments: Electricity
This chapter offers a compelling example of how public fear and misinformation can be used to stifle a superior technology, highlighting the importance of science communication and public education in navigating technological controversies. The story of Edison’s campaign against AC is particularly relevant for AI engineers, as it underscores the need to anticipate and address public concerns about the potential risks and unintended consequences of new technologies.
Memorable Quotes
Introduction. 13
New ideas are not only the enemy of old ones; they also appear often in an extremely unacceptable form.
Introduction. 8
The tension between novelty and stability arising from transformational innovation is a leading source of public controversies and policy challenges.
Introduction. 18
The process of socioeconomic change is largely a footnote on social learning, and public debates about new technologies are analogous to debates about new ideas.
Brewing Trouble: Coffee. 51
Coffee tore their economies apart and served as a purveyor to new routines and new business practices.
We are in it together: Inclusive Innovation. 292
The distinction between products and platforms makes it harder to maintain strict demarcations between those who oppose and those who support new technologies.
Comparative Analysis
My book shares common ground with works like Clayton Christensen’s ‘The Innovator’s Dilemma’, which explores how established firms can be disrupted by new technologies, and Rachel Carson’s ‘Silent Spring’, which exposed the dangers of unchecked technological advancement. However, my focus is not solely on market dynamics or environmental risks. I delve into the deeper sociocultural factors that shape resistance to innovation, drawing on historical examples spanning centuries and diverse technologies. My work emphasizes the importance of understanding the human dimension of technological change, going beyond purely economic or technical analyses to consider the interplay of cultural values, social institutions, and political power in shaping the fate of new technologies.
Reflection
My book offers a compelling and nuanced perspective on the dynamics of technological change, but it also raises important questions about the role of power, politics, and human psychology in shaping the adoption of new technologies. While I advocate for a more proactive and inclusive approach to managing innovation, one might argue that my focus on historical examples may not fully capture the unique challenges and opportunities presented by today’s rapidly evolving technological landscape. Furthermore, some of my assertions about the motivations of various actors could be viewed as speculative, lacking empirical evidence. Nonetheless, my book’s central argument - that resistance to new technologies is fundamentally driven by fear of loss and the need to balance innovation with continuity - remains a powerful lens for understanding and navigating the complex interplay of technology and society. In a world increasingly shaped by AI, biotechnology, and other transformative technologies, understanding the lessons of the past is more critical than ever. This book serves as a valuable guide for navigating the inevitable tensions between innovation and incumbency, ensuring that technological progress benefits all of humanity, not just a select few.
Flashcards
What is Schumpeter’s definition of innovation?
The creation of new combinations that represent a departure from established practices.
What is the fundamental driver of resistance to new technologies, according to Juma?
The fear of loss, not novelty.
What is the core tension that drives technological controversies, as argued by Juma?
The tension between the need to innovate and the pressure to maintain continuity, social order, and stability.
What is inclusive innovation?
Ensuring that the benefits of technological advancement are widely shared and do not exacerbate existing inequalities or create new forms of exclusion.
What is a science-based approach to risk assessment?
An approach to risk management that relies on scientific evidence and data-based assessments, rather than on precaution or speculation.
What is coevolution in the context of technology and society?
The continuous and dynamic interaction between technology and social institutions, where each shapes and influences the other.
What tactics did the dairy industry use to suppress the adoption of margarine?
False advertising, product disparagement, and the creation of health scares to hinder the adoption of a competing product.
What is omission bias?
The tendency for people to favor inaction over action, even when the risks of inaction are greater.